It is generally accepted that Gerald Brosseau Gardner (1884-1964) is the founding father of Wicca. For a while he was an owner and manager of tea and rubber plantations in the Far East and later an inspector in the Malay customs service. Both occupations seem an unlikely breeding ground for the creation of a counter-cultural religion until it is taken into account that Gardner had interests in Spiritualism and Freemasonry as well as a wide knowledge of Buddhism and tribal magic.
He claimed to have been initiated in 1939 into a tradition of Witchcraft that was a survival of European paganism. His initiation was supposed to have been at the hands of one of the New Forest witches in England who was later identified by Gardner as Dorothy Clutterbuck. Many have been sceptical that such a figure existed, but that "old Dorothy" was a real person has been proved both by Doreen Valiente, who discovered her birth certificate, and Professor Ronald Hutton. However, Dorothy was an Anglican Tory and this conservative persuasion seems to give the lie to Gardner's assertion that she was involved in Witchcraft.
Hutton details the extent and variety of influences on Gardner in his excellent and scholarly work, The Triumph of the Moon. He acknowledges that it is difficult to assess who provided Gardner with the inspiration and sources for the development of his religion.Key influences seem to have included members of the Rosicrucian Fellowship of Crotona, a woman known under the magical name of Dafo, who may have been one of Gardner's High Priestesses in the 1950s, the writings of Margaret Murray, and some of the ideas and ceremonies deriving from the Golden Dawn. Some commentators state that infamous magician Aleister Crowley was influential in inspiring Gardner to establish his new pagan religion. The exact extent of Crowley's influence remains debateable (and contentious among Wiccans) but there was perhaps at one time a correspondence between the two men and Gardner may just possibly have been Crowley's magical student. Certainly Witchcraft's central tenet of An it harm none do what thou wilt is strongly suggestive of Crowley's earlier Do what thou wilt and it is generally well known that Gardner used quotes from Crowley's works in his rites. Gardner went about setting up his own coven and amongst the most important of the members of this organisation was Doreen Valiente, who seems to have collaborated with Gardner to write much of the ceremonial practices of what has become known as Gardnerian Wicca[10]. Importantly for the history of Wicca, Gardner published the fictional works A Goddess Arrives and High Magic's Aid in the 1930s and 40s[11]. These were followed in the 1950s by the supposedly factual works, Witchcraft Today and The Meaning of Witchcraft[12]. Although there is much in these works that has since been refuted, they have been partly responsible for the growth of Wicca and for over a decade in the mid-twentieth century provided the only real high profile published source for knowledge of the Craft.
Gardnerian Wicca is generally coven based although there are solitaries who have adapted it to suit their practices. There is an oath of secrecy protecting the knowledge of rituals, rites and practices, although nowadays so much is in the public domain that this has become more or less redundant. Gardnerians have an initiatory system of three degrees commonly referred to as "First", "Second", and "Third" degree. Traditionally only another witch can make a witch. However, this is not necessarily a hard and fast rule as it is possible to self initiate as you will learn in later lessons. A Third Degree initiate is referred to as a High Priestess or High Priest and generally witches of this rank will run a coven. Gardnerians celebrate the Goddess and God, have a programme of seasonal celebrations, organise monthly meetings around the Full Moon and practice a range of spell craft and magic. As we shall see, Gardnerian Wicca has provided the framework for a variety of individual and groups to create their own distinct traditions.
Perhaps the foremost and most widely recognised of these is Alexandrian Wicca. It was created in the 1960s by Alex Sanders with the help of his wife Maxine. Although Alex claimed he was initiated into Witchcraft by his grandmother it is now generally agreed that this story isn't true and that it is more likely that somehow he got a copy of a Gardnerian Book of Shadows and adapted it. Contrary to some people's beliefs, the tradition is named after the ancient library of Alexandria and not Sander's first name. Maxine Sanders has said that the name was suggested by famous witch Stewart Farrar[13]. Sander's system shares many similarities to Gardnerian Wicca. Alexandrian practice is coven based with a system of three initiatory degrees, has as an emphasis on gender polarity, worships a goddess and god, celebrates the seasons and has monthly meetings around the time of the Full Moon. It differs from Gardnerian Wicca in the use of magical tools as well as deity and elemental names. It also incorporates Kabbalah, Ceremonial, and Enochian magic into its rites. Many Alexandrians and Gardnerians recognise that initiation into one tradition is a qualification for another, so much so in fact that syntheses exist such as the Algard tradition created by Mary Nesnick in the United States.
It wasn't long though before other traditions were created that moved further away from the Gardnerian model and the new religion began to spread far and wide. Raymond Buckland and his wife Rosemary came to the USA from England in 1962. Disciples of Gardnerian Wicca, they were among the first to introduce this tradition to the States. A number of Raymond's works have been influential. His Complete Book of Witchcraft aims to provide the student with the means to achieve the knowledge base of a Third Degree witch[14], whilst at the same time not expounding any one particular tradition. The book has been widely used because of its flexibility, which has allowed the possibility of developing one's own particular style of Wicca. In the early 1970s Buckland also wrote The Tree, The Complete Book of Saxon Witchcraft[15]. This has been important for the development of Seax-Wicca. It differs from the Gardnerian/Alexandrian traditions in a number of important ways. For example, there is no degree structure and no oath of secrecy. The High Priestess and Priest are chosen democratically by the coven members and are elected annually to serve for a year and a day only, after which new leaders can be voted for. The tradition also concentrates on Saxon deities, most notably Woden and Freya, where the God rules the winter and the Goddess the summer[16].
In the 1960s and early 1970s Wicca began to reflect the rise of feminism within the USA and Europe, most famously in the form of Dianic Wicca. This tradition falls into at least two distinct paths, the most well-known of which was created by Californian Zsuzsanna Budapest, whose type of Wicca is an all female, feminist tradition that emphasises women's rights. Contrary to popular belief, Dianic covens of this type are not exclusively lesbian and all natural born women are readily welcomed into the sisterhood. Another well-known branch, founded in Texas, was brought into the world by Morgan McFarland and Mark Roberts, and is sometimes referred to as "Old Dianic". Here, both women and men primarily participate in worshipping the Goddess, although the God is present as her beloved consort. Despite the emphasis on the feminine, many of the views, beliefs and practices of Dianic Wicca are similar to other more mainstream traditions.
Not all traditions of Witchcraft recognise that they have their roots in Gardner's system. There are a large number of hereditary witches who claim lineage completely independently of modern Wicca. These are often strongly family based and their members can staunchly defend the veracity of their historical claims. Others conclude that their traditions are based either on a familial custom of fortune telling, the practice of cunning, folk magic or forms of shamanism and not Witchcraft. You will have to decide for yourself what claims you are prepared to believe.
One of the better known of these is the male oriented tradition of Cochranian Witchcraft created by poet Robert Cochrane. Like many founding figures he has made some debateable claims about being part of a hereditary coven asserting that he was initiated into a Warwickshire group in England from the age of five. Some have felt that he further stated that the tradition's roots went back to 1734 CE[17]. However, it appears this view is based on a misunderstanding, as for Cochranians the date is significant in the sense of being a cryptic reference to the Goddess. His ideas appear in Justine Glass's Witchcraft, The Sixth Sense[18], although some Cochranians say this work can be misleading. The tradition has a definite emphasis on male mysteries, mediation and vision work.
There are also traditions that have non-familial roots; one of the most notable of these has been the Feri Tradition[19], which from small beginnings has become known around the world. In large measure this is due no doubt to the writings of Starhawk, the tradition's most famous member, as well as the work of the bard and poet Gwydion Pendderwen[20]. The movement was created in the late 1950s by the poet Victor Anderson and wife Cora, who were influenced by Gardner's Witchcraft Today. It goes under a variety of titles such as Fae, Fey, Feri, Faerie, Fairy, and Fairie Witchcraft. Its key aspect is the concept of the Three Souls, which derives from Huna (a metaphysical theory developed by Max Freedom Long in 1936). The Fey Folk believe that these souls make up the structure of a human being and should be brought into communication with each other to facilitate self awareness as well as knowledge of the God and Goddess. The tradition is joyous, creative and strongly sensual. It works with a variety of goddesses and gods to realise practical magic and bring about self development.
Of course, all the types of Wicca and Witchcraft so far discussed are coven and group based. However, over the last three decades there has been an ever growing movement of solitary witches. As the name suggests these witches generally practice alone. They are often eclectic in their approach, which means that they take aspects of their practice from a number of sources and combine it into a unique personal synthesis, although others will adapt a particular tradition. Solitaries often see themselves as being highly creative and will write their own rites and rituals, prayers and invocations. Some will go down the route of self-initiation or dedication, whilst others see this as being completely unnecessary. The solitary path is not an easy one and takes a lot of determination and self discipline to be successful.
One of the most famous types of Witchcraft often practiced alone is that of the Hedge Witch[21]. Members tend to work from home focussing on practical aspects of the Craft. These include herbalism, magic, cooking, arts and crafts, Earth mysteries and the elements. The Hedge Witch is often something of an eco-warrior and involved with working for the benefit of the planet. Typically they will therefore have a strict "green" attitude to their religion and life in general. It is worth pointing out that there are many Hedge Witches who do not consider themselves as "religious" or Wiccan, preferring instead to see themselves as an expression of Deity and emphasising spontaneity within their practices as opposed to a defined structure.
Wicca and Witchcraft continues to adapt with the times. The rise of the Internet in the late 1990s has meant an explosion of related information in cyber-space. This has taken a variety of forms. Many sites provide a focal point in the form of forums, advice, on-line Wiccan shopping, courses and mentoring. Sites that provide these services are frequented by a variety of coven based witches as well as solitaries. Further, some witches meet online to carry out a range of activities such as celebrations and the practice of magic. This can be deeply frowned upon by some within the Craft who reckon on it having no legitimacy or effectiveness; others, of course, take the opposite point of view and see it as being very beneficial.
There are also a number of sites that offer fully fledged traditions. Some can be disparaging of these, whilst others are deeply committed to their organisation. Supporters would say that if you want to be a witch you have to learn somewhere and a good interactive course, with an opportunity to discuss issues and get help from an online community, can be far better than just learning from a book at home. However, it is true to say that the internet can be a mine field for those seeking a magical education and the student will need to be discriminating about their choice of schooling. There are a number of sites that will confer First, Second and Third Degree status in return for payment. Some of these sites are little more than outright scams. Whilst others provide training of a high quality with extensive detailed courses and mentoring for a reasonable lifetime fee. Some, whilst providing these quality services, charge monthly. The monthly payments can be less than a membership at a gym, but still run into several hundred pounds. Many will be happy enough to pay this, particularly if the service is good. As always though it pays to shop around; most reputable web based Witch sites will give you various try before you buy schemes. Some will even provide you with complete quality courses, that you are under no obligation to pay for, with a later option of taking out a subscription.
Footnotes
Valiente documents her findings in Janet and Stewart Farrar, A Witches' Bible, The Complete Witches' Handbook, Phoenix Publishing Inc. 1996, Appendix A, pp.283-93.
See Ronald Hutton, The Triumph of the Moon, A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft, Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 205-12.
On the nature and extent of the influences on Gardner see Hutton, ibid., pp. 205-240.
This phrase was in print at least as early as the 1938 London edition of The Book of the Law published by the O.T.O. (Aleister Crowley's magical order the Ordo Templi Orientis). For those that don't know Aleister Crowley was a key figure in the development of magic in the first half of the twentieth century. He is widely seen as controversial and often unfairly and inaccurately represented as a black magician in the popular press.
See, for example, parts of The Charge and The Drawing Down of the Moon from the Wiccan Opening Ritual in Janet and Stewart Farrar, op. cit. p.41 and p. 42.
[10] For example Valiente wrote a rhymed version of the Charge as well as the Witches' Rune (with Gardner).
[11] Published today as Gerald B. Gardner, A Goddess Arrives, Godolphin House, 1997 and High Magic's Aid, Pentacle Enterprises, 1999.
[12] Available today as Gerald B. Gardner, Witchcraft Today, Magickal Childe, 1980 and The Meaning of Witchcraft, Red Wheel/Weiser, 2004.
[13] See Maxine Sander's interview with the Wiccan Pagan Times at http://www.twpt.com/sanders.htm.
[14] Certainly this is Buckland's view op. cit. p. xviii.
[15] Raymond Buckland, The Tree, The Complete Book of Saxon Witchcraft, Red Wheel/Weiser, 1984.
[16] This has come under criticism form some witches who feel that the Goddess and God should be seen as ruling the whole year together.
[17] See Vivianne Crowley, Wicca, Element, 2003, p.36. See also for an inside viewpoint http://www.cog.org/wicca/trads/1734.html [18] Justine Glass, Witchcraft, The Sixth Sense, Wiltshire Book Company. 1974. See in particular chapters 1, 10 and 11.
[19] Many in the Feri Tradition feel that although something is owed to Gardner and Sanders in terms of some of their belief systems and rituals, their practice has evolved considerably from what can be described as Wicca. The Feri Tradition should not be confused with Faery Wicca founded by author Kisma Stepanich.
[20] Before his death, Gwydion Pendderwen (1946-1982) recorded two albums called Songs For the Old Religion and The Fairy Shaman as well as writing a book of poems, Wheel of the Year. He was active in sponsoring and promoting paganism in the USA.
[21] Hedge Witchcraft owes its standardisation to Rae Beth and her book Hedge Witch: A Guide to Solitary Witchcraft, Hale, 1990. Some people refer to Hedge Witches as Kitchen Witches and also compare them with Green Witches, see Arin Murphy Hiscock, The Way of the Green Witch, Rituals, Spells and Practices to Bring you Back to Nature, Provenance Press, 2008, pp. 8-9.
Tags: god and goddess of greece myths gods and goddesses white candle magic spells black magic ritual authentic voodoo doll meditation benches abu hayyan nitrate silver acid 17th alchemical dickinson
